Rome
Culture
Rome is the capital of Italy, on the Tiber River, in the central part of the country near the Tyrrhenian Sea. Rome contains the Vatican City, most of which is located in an enclave within Rome, is the seat of the papacy of the Roman Catholic church and has been recognized as an independent state by the Italian government since 1929. The majestic dome of Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City dominates the Roman skyline. For centuries, Rome has been called the Eternal City, a title earned through its importance as one of the great cities of Western
civilization, as the capital of the Roman Empire, and as the world center
of the Roman Catholic church.
According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 BC on one of the
Seven Hills term used for centuries to describe the Capitoline, Quirinal,
Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine, and Palatine hills surrounding
the old community. Archaeological evidence indicates, however, that
human settlement here dates from at least 1000 BC. The Capitoline Hill
was long the seat of Rome's government, and the Palatine Hill was the
site of such great structures as the Palace of the Flavians, built by the
Roman emperor Domitian. As a result of construction through the
centuries, most of the Seven Hills are now hardly distinguishable from
the adjacent plain. Other hills of Rome include the Pincian (Pincio) and
the Janiculum. (Encarta, Rome)
Rome today is easily divided into two regions: the inner city, within the
Aurelian Wall, built in the late 3rd century AD to enclose the area around
the Seven Hills; and the sprawling outer city, with its suburbs. The
historical center is a small area, located almost entirely on the eastern
(left) bank of the Tiber. The monuments of Rome's past greatness are,
for the most part, within the historical center, in stark contrast to the
modern districts. The street pattern of the city reflects its long and
complex history. The Via del Corso traverses most of the historic center
from the Piazza Venezia, the geographic center of Rome, to the Piazza
del Popolo, at the foot of Pincio Hill. Its use dates from the Middle
Ages, when it was a horse-racing course. The monument to Victor
Emmanuel II, the first king of united Italy, built between 1895 and
1911, forms part of the Piazza Venezia. Other thoroughfares, such as
the Via Vittorio Veneto, which commemorates Italy's final victory in
World War I and is at the heart of the tourist area, were designed and
built since the late 19th century. (Young, 465)
Other popular points of historical interest include the Piazza del
Campidoglio, a square containing a bronze statue of Emperor Marcus
Aurelius completed during the 2d century ad; the Piazza Navona, a
square with three fountains, including the Fountain of the Four Rivers
by the Italian sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini; the Trevi Fountain (Young, 119), an 18th
century baroque fountain into which tourists toss coins while making
wishes; and the Piazza di Spagna, where the famous Spanish Steps,
built in the 18th century, ascend to the 15th-century church of the Trinity
dei Monti. Perhaps the finest works of more modern times are the
structures built for the 1960 Olympic Games, several of which were
designed by one of Italy's leading contemporary architects, Pier Luigi
Nervi.
Rome has been an urban center for more than 2000 years, and although
monuments of most periods of the city's history still stand, the
destructive impact of atmospheric pollution and vibrations from heavy
vehicular traffic is gradually leading to increased efforts toward
preservation, including restrictions on cars and trucks in the historic
center. (Encarta, Rome)
ANCIENT ROME: Walking Tour
The Roman Forum (Foro Romano)
Built in a valley between the Capitoline and Palatine hills , this center of city life reached its peak of importance during the
reigns of Julius and Augustus Ceasar. Much of the framework for
Western civilization was determined here. Even our own system derives
from this forum: "capitol" is from Capitoline Hill, "rostrum" from the
Rostra (where Mark Antony gave Ceasar's obitiuary), and "money"
from the mint at the Tempio di Giunone Moneta on the Capitoline. To
the right of the entry ramp lies the Basilica Emilia. Built in 179 BC and
nearly destroyed by fire and the Vandals, it had no religious purpose,
but the form was adopted by many early Christian Churches. Green
stains in the nave show where copper coins were dropped when Rome
was set on fire by the Goths in 410. In front of the Basilica is the
original Forum devised by Tarquin. When the malarial marsh there was
drained, the first forum was built-really an early piazza. The Tempio di
Vesta on the east side was there, as was the original Curia which was
the meeting place of the senate. The black stone (lapis niger) is in a
sacred enclosure dedicated to Romulus. Prior to Augustus, the place
was populated by stucco and terra-cotta buildings. He boasted to have
turned the place from a city of brick to a city of marble. Political
candidates addressed the crowds from the once grand Rostra (now just a
stone platform behind the Column of Phocas). Its name is derived from
the prows (rostra) that were lined up here as war trophies (Cicero's head
was once among these trophies). Among other things, Ceasar was
cremeated here, elections were held nearby, and victorious generals
paraded along the Via Sacra to the Capitoline Hill where the Tempio di
Giove (Temple of Jupiter) stood. (Tucker 424)
When Carthage was subdued in the
Punic Wars, forums sprang up including the Foro di Cesari and the Fori
Traiano (Trajan's Forum) across the present-day via dei Fori Imperiali
(built by Mussolini). Beyond the basilica stands the Curia, a brick
building begun by Sulla in 80 BC and replacing the original Curia built
by King Tullius. The Curia was a consecrated building with an altar and
a statue of the pagan god of victory. It was removed hundreds of years
later by Saint Ambrose, archbishop of Milan. The Arco di Settimo
Severo was erected in 203 AD with a sculpture of Severo and his two
sons riding in a chariot at the top of the arch. Caracalla murdered his
brother, Geta, whose name was prompty removed from the monument
(though his inscription can still be seen under the forth line at the top of
the arch). To the side and slightly behind the arch, are the eight arches of
the Tempio di Saturno. Dedicated to the god Saturn, this was where the
Saturnalia was celebrated in December of each year. In front of the
Rostra, is the Colonna di Foca, dedicated to the emperor who gave the
Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV in 608. Next to the Temple of Saturn, is
the Basilica Giulia, named for Julius Ceasar (who was murdered near
campo dei Fiori before its completion). Some stones in the pavement
were used as ancient gaming boards and traces can still be seen. The
three elegant columns of the Tempio di Castore Polluce lie to the east of
the basilica. (Tucker 425)
The temple was built in honor of the heavenly twins in the
fifth century B.C. when the Roman army saw the twins fighting on their
side and the twins appeared at the site proclaiming victory. The round
Tempio di Vesta nearby, where the goddess's flame was kept burning
by the Vestal virgins, was modeled after the circular hut used by the
area's earliest know inhabitants. The virgins where pledged for 30 years
to the cult and where charged with keeping the flame from going out. If
it did, they were severely thrashed. If they lost their virginity, they were
forced to descend into their own tomb and barried alive. The convent
was a self-contained unit surrounding a central garden court with pools
and statues of the virgins. The name Claudia has been erased below the
figure of one who converted to Christianity. The Tempio di Antonio e
Faustina (at the right of the entrance to the Forum area) is set atop a
long, Etrusian staircase and a fragment of a statue can be seen on the
porch. Alongside it is the Church of Santi Cosm e Damiano which
boasts an expansive presepio (Nativity scene) and sixth century
mosaics. The large Basilica di Massenzio e Costantino was begun under
Maxentius, but after Constantine defeated him in the battle of the Milvian
bridge, the building took on both names. Inside remain disembodies
fragments of the 40-foot statue of Constantine. The Arco di Tito at the
end of the Forum was built in A.D. 81 to celebrate the sack of Jerusalem
by the emperor; the friezes show the spoils being transported back to
Rome in A.D. 70. Between the basilica of Maxentius and Constantine
and the Arch of Titus, is the Antiquarium - a museum that houses some
interesting objects excavated from the Palentine. (Tucker 426)
Palentine Hill
Covered in umbrella pines, the hill evokes "perfect classical beauty." Down the steps are the excavations of Livias house and beyond that the unearthed huts of primitive Rome. To the southeast are remains of emporors' villas (including Augustus') which overlook the Circus Maximus on the other side of the hill from the Forum.
Circus Maximus
The oblong field is all that's left of Circo Massimo's great chariot track. As many as 385,000 spectators sat here amid marble columns to watch four chariots race for seven laps around the two and a half miles. During Caligula's reign, there were as many as 24 races per day. In the stands wine sellers worked the crowd. The last race was held in A.D. 549.
Arch of Constantine
This is the largest and the best preserved of the arches. It was erected by
the emperor after a successful battle with Maxentius. During the battle,
Constantine supposedly saw a vision of a cross and heard, "In hoc
signo vinces" (In this sign thou shalt conquer). The arch's collection of
reliefs wasa partly assembled from various other Roman monuments. In
the central archway are reliefs that depict Trajan's victories, but
Constantine's head has been substituted for Trajan's. The "frontality" of
the figures foretells Constantine's transfer of the capital from Rome to
Byzantinium (rebuilt as Constantinople) in 330. (Young, 113)
The Colosseum
Built in A.D. 72 during the reign of Vespasian, its fame due in large part
to its bloody history of cruelty to Christians and other such "criminals".
Gladiators were recruited from condemned criminals and war prisoners.
It was built out of blocks of travertine mined in Tivoli and brought to
Rome along a road created for just that purpose. The fourth level held
cables that supported huge awnings that could be used to protect the
crowd from rain or sun. Scents were sprayed on the crowd to mute the
offensive smell of blood below. At the first row of seats one can see the
names of important boxholders. In the second circle sat the plebians,
with women and then slaves at the back. 50,000 spectators could be
seated efficiently. There were 80 entrances and each had a number that
corresponded with the spectator's ticket. The colosseum could also be
filled with water to stage a sea battle (naumachiae). During gladatorial
combat, the crowd cheered at every blow: Verbera! (Strike!) or Ingula!
(Kill!). To ensure that a fallen warrior was dead, he would be struck
upon the head with a mallet. A gladiator unable to continue would lie on
his back and raise his left arm in appeal to the emperor who would give
a signal granting life or death depending on the apparent courage of the
warrior. (Encarta, Rome)
The Pantheon is the best preserved of all Rome's ancient buildings. At
the top of the Pantheon's facade, you can see the name Agrippa
inscribed, signifying the son-in-law of Augustus who built the original
Pantheon in 27 B.C. which later burned down. Covering the interior
walls, are the tombs of distinguished Italians kings such as Vittorio
Emanuele II as well as tombs of artists such as Rapheal. On the inside
one can see the awe-inspiring circular opening high at the top. Upon
exiting, one can walk around the Pantheon on the left to see the stag's
head and antlers of the Church of Sant'Eustachio who converted to
Christianity while hunting. According to the legend, when his arrow
was aimed at the stag, Christ's head appeared in the antlers.
According to legend, the city of Rome was
founded by Romulus (with his brother, Remus,
in some accounts) in 753 BC. Although
archaeological evidence suggests earlier
habitations on the site, extended human
settlement may well have dated from this time.
Traces of an Iron Age village from the mid-8th century BC have been
found on the Palatine Hill. The legend of the rape of the Sabine women
and the subsequent merger of the Romans and Sabines are similarly
supported by excavated remains. (Tucker, 437)
Earliest Rome was a kingdom with two classes, the patricians (nobles)
and the plebeians (commoners). The Senate, or Council of Elders,
elected the monarchs and limited their power.
Republican Rome
Etruscan kings ruled Rome from the 7th to the late 6th century bc, but
when the last monarch was overthrown, about 510 bc, a republic was
established. Rome subsequently began to absorb the surrounding areas.
After a Gallic invasion early in the 4th century bc, the so-called Servian
Wall was built around the city. The first aqueduct in Rome was built in
312 bc. At the same time, the Via Appia (see: Appian Way), connecting
the city with southern Italy, was constructed. Rome continued to grow
during and after the Punic Wars (264-146 bc). During that time the first
basilica, a type of building that could accommodate crowds in bad
weather, was constructed (184 bc) in the Forum. (Facaros, 840)
After the assassinations (133 and 121 bc) of the brothers Tiberius and
Gaius Gracchus, who had attempted to institute land reforms to aid the
poor, the city experienced a period of instability that climaxed in the civil
wars of the 1st century bc. Julius Caesar ultimately became dictator and
instituted a series of reforms. The Forum had become crowded with
structures and monuments and needed to be expanded; the Forum of
Caesar was then planned. It was completed under Augustus, the first
emperor, who also built the Forum of Augustus.
Imperial Rome
By the early imperial period, Rome was the hub of the Roman Empire,
both physically, as the center of the Italian road system, and
psychologically, as the capital of the world. This vast agglomeration had
adequate water supply and efficient sewers, but the overcrowding of
poor people in tenements resulted in frequent fires. Emperor Augustus
instituted the vigiles, or fire fighters with police powers. In addition,
vehicles were not allowed in the crowded streets except at night, and
legislation was passed restricting the maximum height of buildings. A
disastrous fire in ad 64 nevertheless destroyed much of the center of the
city. For Nero, the emperor then in power, this was an opportunity to
build his palatial Golden House. (Facaros, 842)
The Flavian dynasty (ad 69-96), in order to curry favor with the Roman
populace, began a program of public works. The most prominent of
these was the amphitheater known as the Colosseum, which could
accommodate gladiatorial games and even mock sea battles staged for
huge crowds. Few or no large-scale industries existed in Rome at the
time, and adequate employment was not available for the vast
population; hence, the grain dole and games (bread and circuses) that
had begun during Republican times continued. In addition to events in
amphitheaters, chariot races were arranged in circuses and pantomimes
in sumptuous theaters. (Facaros, 844)
Emperor Trajan had the last of the imperial forums built in the early 2d
century. By that time, huge baths, some of them even including
libraries, had become a fixture of the city's life; the largest were built by
Caracalla and Diocletian in the 3d century. Because of the deterioration
already threatening the empire, a wall was built around the city during
the 3d century. By the following century, however, it was clear that the
imperial court would have to be closer to the borders. Emperor
Constantine the Great therefore founded the city of Constantinople as the
Christian ÒNew Rome.Ó Although Rome then began to decline, the first
major Christian basilicas, among them the original Saint Peter's, were
constructed during this period.
Decline of the City
In 410 and 455 Rome was ingloriously sacked by invading Germanic
tribes. Attempts were made to preserve the physical plant of the city in
the face of growing chaos, but occupation by the Ostrogoths in the 6th
century, subsequent Byzantine reoccupation, and concomitant
destruction all contributed to a precipitous decline, and the population
dwindled. The city was, however, the seat of the papacy, and a certain
number of people remained. Under Pope Gregory I the decline was even
arrested for a while, but Italy later became a battleground again; in the
9th century a new low ebb was reached when Arabs attacked the area
around the city, including the Vatican. During the Middle Ages, the
built-up areas shrank until they were confined to the shore of the Tiber,
where water was available. Only one of the ancient aqueducts was still
operable. (Facaros, 846)
Papal Glory
The city's fortunes began to improve in the 11th century, although
improvement was delayed at the beginning of the 14th century, when the
popes settled in Avignon. The papacy returned to Rome in 1377, and
after the middle of the 15th century the city became a center of
Renaissance culture. Massive papal patronage of the arts began to enrich
Rome. During the papacy (1447-55) of Nicholas V the defense walls
were repaired, palaces built, and churches restored. Major artists and
architects now worked in Rome, and by the end of the century it had
supplanted Florence as the primary focal point of the Renaissance. The
sack of the city in 1527 by Habsburg mercenaries was a temporary
setback. During the 16th century Michelangelo, Bramante, Raphael, and
other artists worked for the popes, and construction of the new St.
Peter's Basilica progressed. It was not until the reign (1585-90) of Pope
Sixtus V, however, that the dense, confused medieval urban pattern
began to be modernized. Three major streets were laid out to radiate
from the Piazza del Popolo to the center of the city. Sixtus also built
squares and fountains, and he restored the Acqua Felice aqueduct. In
addition, old churches were refurbished, and St. Peter's dome was
completed. (Tucker, 477)
National Capital
After the city became the capital of united Italy in 1871, feverish growth
followed. Whole new quarters were constructed. By the beginning of
the 20th century the entire area within the ancient walls had been built
up, and the city began to expand outward. High embankments were
built along the Tiber to prevent floods, and Rome was extensively
modernized. The dictatorship (1922-43) of Benito Mussolini was
marked by the destruction of old quarters and the construction of such
pompous projects as the Via dell'Impero (now Via dei Fori Imperiali).
In 1929 the Vatican became an independent papal enclave. Declared an
open city during World War II, Rome was spared heavy bombing.
Postwar growth has continued at a rapid pace, and new residential
developments are extending far out into the Roman countryside. (Encarta, Rome)
Impressions
Roman Ruins
 |
We finally managed to find the entrance to the Roman ruins and paid the hefty 12000 Lire entrance fee. At first glance the forum seemed to be just a pile of rubble-marble and brick strewn everywhere in an anarchist's playground. After closer examination and a little orientation from the guide book, however, the place came into focus as the center of a fallen empire. It was a proud time for a proud culture and that was evident in the abundance of arches and sculptures commemorating countless battles and hard-fought wars that nobody cares much about today. In the tradition of such structures, the victors took more than a few historical liberties. The arch of Titus and the arch of Septimus Severus, which cap each side of the Via Sacra, were placed to commemorate victorious battles of the Roman empire. In the tradition of such structures, the victors took more than a few historical liberties. In the case of the arch of Titus, two friezes on the interior of the arch show triumphant soldiers carrying away a candlabra and other distictively Jewish items.
Many of the buildings show a rich pagan tradition of days gone by. Temples to such figures as Venus, Romulus & Remus, and Jupiter were common. At the same time, a growing Christian influence was evident. With the building of Constatine's triumphant arch, a new era began where a religion whose believers were punishable by death to a religion whose nonbelievers were in danger.
-Ben Perry |
The Tomb of St. Peter
The amazing "Baldacchino," made from cast-bronze, covers the tomb of St. Peter
with its canopy. This extravagant canopy was made at the command of the
Barbarini family at a great expense to the Roman Empire. In fact, they had to
take the bronze off of many other works of art and other buildings to get
enough to make the Baldacchino, and it is said that, "What the barbarians
didn't steal, the Barbarini did."
-Nick Neises
Dickens on the Coliseum
"To see it crumbling there, an inch a year; its walls and arches overgrown with green; its corridors open to the day; the long grass growing in its porches; young trees of yesterday springing up on its ragged parapets, and bearing fruit; chance produce of the seeds dropped there by the birds who build their nests within its chinks and crannies; to see its Pit of Fight filled up with earth, and the peaceful Cross planted in the center; to climb into its upper halls, and look down on ruin, ruin, ruin, all about it; the triumphal arches of Constantine, Septimus Severus, and Titus; the Roman Forum; the Palace of Caesars; the temples of the old religion, fallen down and gone; it is to see the ghost of old Rome, wicked, wonderful old city, haunting the very ground on which its people trod. It is the most impressive, the most stately, the most solemn, grand, majestic, and mournful sight conceivable. Never, in its bloodiest crime, can the sight of the gigantic Coliseum, full and running over with the lustiest life, have moved one heart, as it must move all who look upon it now, a ruin. God be thanked: a ruin! "
-Charles Dickens, Pictures from Italy